Along the coast, Redwood National Park and Prairie Creek Redwood State Park are prime examples of the coast redwoods. However, the Klamath Mountains are quite different. Above 2,000 feet, the montane forests contain the most diverse endemics and relicts of any other single area. Sometimes the Klamath Province vegetation is referred to as a fossil forest. It is said to most closely resemble the North American forests of one million years ago. Over twenty types of conifers exist here.

Three 'Wild and Scenic' rivers exist here, the Trinity River, the Klamath River, and the Smith River. 'Wild and Scenic' means that they must remain undammed and allowed to follow their natural course. The Klamath River is dammed in Oregon, but it runs 150 miles as a wild river. These are the only rivers where wild Salmon and Steelhead run in large numbers.

The Klamath Province contains the Siskiyou Mountains which the Smith river drains. This mountainous region contains the Salmon Mts., Marble Mts., Scott Mts., South Fork Mts., and the Trinity Alps. The Trinity Alps are the highest and southernmost, and are drained by the Trinity River which flows into the Klamath River just before it runs into the Pacific Ocean.

Just to the east is the southernmost volcanic province of the Cascade Range, rolling forest about 4,000 feet above sea level. One of the most interesting anomalies is the Sutter Buttes, which now look like miniature volcanoes. Mount Shasta and Mount Lassen are volcanic peaks in an area exhibiting both open forests and hot springs. An example is the Lassen Volcanic National Park. Shasta and Lassen are only 2 of the 12 peaks in the Cascade Range. The Cascade Range marks the western edge of the volcanic tableland called the Columbia Plateau, of which the California portion is called the Modoc Plateau. The Modoc Plateau lies in the rain shadow of the Klamath and Cascade Mountains.

The precipitation is the highest in the state. The Coastal Redwoods receive 80 inches per year, while the Douglas Fir Forests of the Siskiyou Range receives 140 inches per year. Most of the rain is in the winter, but summer rains, due to the tail ends of Alaskan storms, are not uncommon. Temperatures do not run to extremes enough to freeze the soil; thus, most photosynthesis occurs in the winter months. These summer rains encourage the many relict species that occur nowhere else in the state. Westward facing slopes receive high precipitation, but inland in the rain shadow, it drops to about 20 inches per year. The slopes of Mount Lassen and Shasta receive about 60 inches a year. The precipitation discourages large forest fires, except in drought years.

The subduction of the tectonic plates that created the Sierra Nevada Mountains happened around the same time as that of the Klamath Range. The batholitic granite is the same as that of the Sierra Nevada Range. The granite intruded into older metamorphic rock, and even newer ones were added in the west by accretion. Former trench rocks, including serpentines, are called ophiolitic soils. The intrusion of granite and the amount of metamorphism makes the difference between the Coastal Range and the Klamath Mountains. Fossil evidence has indicated that at the end of the Mesozoic period around 65 million years ago or the beginning of the Cenozoic period; the Klamath Mountains were islands eroding and experiencing tectonic quiescence. Oxisols or lateritic (red clay) soils formed west of both the Klamath and Sierra Nevada Mountains.

The San Andreas Transform system began moving northward about 25 million years ago, while the southern Coast Ranges began their uplift. At this time, volcanic activity displaced the sea and created the basaltic lava that covered the Modoc Plateau, and weathering caused sediments force out the sea, creating the fertile central valley. The Klamath Mountains did not participate in this uplift as the Klamath were covered by dense forests, but this activity resulted in the uplifting of the Sierra Nevada mountains. The Gold Rush that began in the Sierra foothills spread to the Klamath Province. The rivers ran so fast that they were diverted for the miners by hydraulic mining, which devastated the land much as strip mining does. Later, cyanide heap leaching made mining lesser grade ores feasible. Also, great environmental damage was done to mammals in the region. Cobalt, nickel, and chromium, are being used as an excuse for the greatest environmental disaster of all, strip mining. Mining companies are asking the federal government to subsidize them because these are considered strategic minerals. The cost under the law would be prohibitive because they would be required to restore the environment to acceptable levels. Environmentalists are concerned with waste products and the air and water pollution that these operations generate.

The Cascade Range volcanic activity seems to be subsiding. The subduction off of the California coast seems to be ongoing as there is still a deep trench offshore where the ocean floor is sliding under the continental plate. The leading edge of the basaltic oceanic plate is believed to be causing the volcanic and geothermic activity in the Yellowstone area. Therefore, the uplift from the oceanic spreading is constantly moving inland and eastward. Geothermal and volcanic activity is proven not only by eruptions and earthquakes, but also the geothermal activity that is seen so very often.

The primary volcanic rock in the Cascades is andesite from volcanic subduction arc-borderland. It is called Andesite because it is the same as found in the Andes Mountains. Mount Lassen is composed of Andesite and closely related Dacite. Mount Shasta's larger cone is composed of Dacite, the smaller cone is rhyolite, a light colored volcanic rock. Mount Shasta shows signs of glaciation that shows that it is young, in fact, there is still an active glacier on the top of the mountain.

Lilies of the Valley: Shellee Hoomalu, Allison Cox, Jeannie Malarich, Amy Huddle Chapter 6: Pacific Northwest Mountains

In the Klamath region, there is vigorous forest growth. In this area there are many plant species and the precipitation encourages this growth selective to this area. The climate in Klamath is pretty predictable. Since soil in the never freezes, more photosynthesis happens in the winter months. You may wonder how can more photosynthesis happen in the winter. The answer is, the reflection from the snow and the soil not freezing. All of these conditions combined create a unique habitat not only for species of foliage, but also for topographical aspects.

Geology of the Klamath Province:

The Klamath region is similar to the Sierra Nevada. It is composed of batholithic rock formed by subduction. The belts nearly match up between the Klamaths and the Sierra Nevada. In some areas trench rocks have become uplifted and became attached to the edge of the continent. Due to movement of the plates these ranges became separated. The Klamath Mountains began to slide westward, called extension. Over the years, their new origin is about 60 miles west of there point of origin. The basic differences between the two and the northern Coast Ranges are the presence of granite. Millions of years ago the geographical nature of the area changed. The Klamath Mountain used to be an island, it was covered by seawater. Tectonic movement and erosion have created the look of the area today. The movement of the plates and the rising of basaltic lava pushed the ocean back away from the area and also filled the gap between the Klamath Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. Soon gold was discovered in the area. With the discovery of gold came miners. Miners diverted the waterways and mined the river gravel. This environmental change of the area concerned many. Miners used cyanide to leach gold from the soil.

 The area covered in this chapter discusses the northwestern corner of California, which is a mountainous region. This region is has a variety of diversified realms. It has unique characteristics to its topography, forest, rivers and vegetation. Many botanists flock to the area due to its complex vegetation which has a great deal of species diversity. "There are over 20 species of conifers in the area, more than any other part of California." (Schoenherr) Much of this land is not accessible to the general public due to its mountainous region. The Klamath Province epitomizes the later statement. Fossils have been found in the Klamath region, therefore classifying it as a living fossil - forest. In the Klamath Province there are three rivers, the Klamath River, the Trinity River, and the Smith River. "The Smith River has been proposed as a wild-river national park. The fact that the Eel River joins the coast just south of the Klamath Province means that four of California's wild and scenic rivers are in the region. "Wild and scenic" means that the rivers must remain undammed, allow to follow their natural course." In California these are the only rivers in the state that still have reasonable runs of salmon and steelhead trout." This makes these rivers unique, due to the fact that this is still "pristine property." Not only are there just mountains and rivers in this area that make it so diverse, there are also volcanic peaks. Lassen and Shasta surround the terrain. Lassen reaches 10,457 feet while Shasta reaches14,162 feet.

Climate:

The climate in Klamath has the highest precipitation in the state. Along the coast through the redwood belt precipitation reaches 80 inches. Due to the gold out of the area. In the 1980's the concern for the wildlife arose. The concern was that the cyanide would get into the ground water or streams and pollute the area. Many mammals and birds were killed during this time, despite claims that the cyanide was safe. Today miners want to establish strip mines, basically stripping the area of dirt and extracting the valuable minerals. This process would take a lot of money and would be potentially damaging to the area with regards to pollution.

Geology of the Cascade Province- In this section we explore the realm of Cascade volcanics. The process of forming the range began millions of years ago and was responsible for uplifting volcanic peaks. The occurrence of the eruptions is much less than it was years ago thus, resulting in less earthquakes in the area today. The California coast demonstrates an example of a rifted borderland. This area is similar to the San Andreas fault. The area of the California Coast, north and south is an area of change. The volcanic area is a region of magma formation. There are areas of subduction where the plates are moving and creating geothermal activity. The primary type of rock found in this area is andesite. This rock is found in areas of subduction where a volcanic arc is found. Mount Lassen and Mount Shasta are two examples of this. Two types of rock found in this area are dacite and Shastina.

Biotic Zonation of the Klamath Province- This is an area where terraces are present. In each of these terraces different species of vegetation are found. Some of the vegetation present are Shore Pines, Grand Fir, Sitka Spruce, Western Hemlock and Knobcone pine. The soil in this area is serpentine.

Riparian Woodland- Vegetation in this area consist of riparian species, broad-leaved evergreens, Pacific Madrone, Tanoak, and California Laurel, Pacific Dogwood, Big-leaf maple, Oregon Ash, Pacific Willow, Sandbar Willow, Arroyo Willow, Tracy Willow and many other species. At each of the different elevations you experience different vegetation. Mixed Evergreen Forest- The Mixed Evergreen Forest dominates above 1,000 feet. This area consists of broad-leaved evergreen species and conifers. In the Mixed Evergreen Forest there are subdivisions, these subdivisions consist of differences in moisture gradient or soil type. The categories are soil type, exposure and moisture. On north-facing slopes the terraces are covered with Douglas Fir. The areas also consist of Yellow Pine Forest, Sugar Pine, Ponderosa Pine and White Fir. The underground filaments of the Mixed Evergreen Forest consist of fungi called mycorrhizae. These increase the surface area therefore increasing the absorption of water and nutrients. There are Oregon White Truffle that range between British Columbia to northern California. Dependent upon the ranges and their elevation levels, different soils and vegetation exist. At lower elevation the dominant trees are mainly Tanoak, Canyon Live Oak which are broad leaved trees. On the steep slopes there are Golden-Cup Oak. In more exposed areas on ophiolitic soils, Yellow Pine Forest occur. Incense Cedar, Jeffrey Pine, and Knobcone Pine dominate.

Red Fir Forest- The elevation in this area ranges between 4500-6000 feet. The main vegetation consists of Lodgepole Pine, Western Whit Pine, and Mountain Hemlock. In California Red Fir exists on the western side of the Siskiyous.

Biotic Zonation of the Cascades- Typical to this area are Yellow Pine Forest which is dominated by Ponderosa Pine, Sugar Pine, White Fir and Incense Cedar.

Animals of the Northwest Forests- There are fungi, slime molds, termites and insects, Banana slugs and these consume the debris of the forest. Salamanders are common and are distributed throughout the forest. Dependent upon the area, different salamanders exist. Some include Ensatina eshscholtzii platensis, which is the painted salamander, Arboreal salamander, the Black Salamander and the Clouded Salamander. These are just a few to name among the 15 different species.

Birds- Though not particularly abundant, there are different species of birds. Hummingbirds, grouses, creepers, nuthatches, warblers, chikadees, swallows, swifts, Bald Eagles, woodpeckers, are just a few of the many species of birds that exist in the forest. The controversial spotted owl also exists here in the forest. The spotted owl has been the topic of many strikes against loggers and logging companies. The threatened Spotted Owl lives in many of the trees that were being cut down. In an attempt to save the threatened species, many protested against the cutting down of their homes. Today the Spotted Owl is protected and its habitat is safe for the time being. "Safe," at least from human destruction.

Mammals- The mammals that are associated with the forest consist of, squirrels, chipmunks, tree voles, mice, and rats. Of the larger mammals, the Porcupine exist. The are seen in the Klamath Mountains and throughout the Cascades. Raccoons are widespread throughout the northern forests they usually occur around watercourses and lakes. The largest mammal of this region is the Roosevelt Elk or Wapiti. It used to occur near Shasta Lake in northeastern California, but due to human destruction of their habitat we have wiped out these mammals. The only native deer to California is the Mule Deer.

The Mamas and Papas Chap. 6 Pacific Northwest

Pacific Northwest Mountains

* The highest peak in the pacific northwest of California in Thompson Peak (elev. 8936 ft.) located in the Trinity Alps.

* Most of the mountainous region is not accessible to the public. The Klamath Province is one of these.

* Redwood National Park and Prairie Creek Redwood State Park are located in a belt of Coast Redwoods mainly along

highway 101. Plant communities on terraces here are similar to the coastal ranges plants.

* Above 2000 ft. the Klamath forest takes on a different character. Many endemics and relicts are located here.

Vegetation patterns are highly complex and there is a great deal of species diversity. There are over 200 species of

conifers. The Klamath Province vegetation represents living fossil forests.

* Wild rivers (rivers must remained undammed, allowed to follow their natural course)

1. Klamath

2. Trinity

3. Smith (a wild river national park)

(these are the only rivers in California that still have reasonable runs of steelhead and salmon)

* The Klamath Province represents more than one range. The Siskiyou Mountains, the Salmon, Marble, Scott, South

Fork and Trinity Mountains are all part of it.

* To the east of the Klamath Province is the Cascade Range. This range is a volcanic province consisting mostly of

rolling, forested terrain about 4000 ft. in elevation. The southern most part of this range is the Sutter Buttes which is

2132 ft. above sea level. Mount Lassen (elev. 10,457 ft.) and Mount Shasta (14,163 ft.) are also a part of this range. The

Cascade Range lies west of the volcanic tableland called the Columbia Plateau. It extends from southern British

Columbia to California.

Climate

* Precipitation in the Redwood forest is the highest in the state. An average of 80 inches along the redwood belt and

140 inches in the Doug fir area.. The ground never freezes even where snowfall reaches 10 feet so most photosynthesis

occurs during the winter months. The driest month is July, but summer rain is common. Many plants in this area

survive because of this rain. On the western slopes of Lassen and Shasta, precipitation is about 60 inches. The cool

moist climate mainly eliminates forest fires yet during drought years, fires can be large.

Geology of the Klamath Province

* The structural framework of the Klamath Mountains is the same as the Sierra Nevada. Batholithic rock formed both

ranges. Metamorphic rocks were added later. Fossils of mammals that lived long ago along the shoreline about 130

million years ago can be found in both the western slope of the Klamaths and the Sierra Nevada. 130 million years ago

these two ranges became dismembered. The Klamath Mountains slid westward 60 miles. About 65 million years ago,

the Klamath Mountains stood as an island. Seawater covered the cascades and Modoc plateau. Erosion took place and

tectonic quiescence took place also. Materials eroded off the Klamaths and Sierra Nevadas and became deposited

westward. The climate was warm. Lateritic soils formed along the western borders of the Sierras and Klamath

Provinces. The red soil is still present. Tectonic activity began 25 million years ago. The San Andreas Transform

system began its march northward and the southern Coast ranges began to!

heir uplift. Volcanic activity began and black basaltic lava began to pour out over the Modoc Plateau filling the gap

between the Klamath Mountains and the newly rising Sierra Nevada. This displaced the sea. This activity along with

run off filled in the great central valley.

* The discovery of gold in the Klamath region has been an issue until even now. Chemicals and strip mining have had

an impact on the area with possible negative implications for the future.

Geology of the Cascade Province

* A relatively young mountain range. The uplifting has formed volcanic peaks as high as 14,000 ft. The Tuscan

Formation has been dated back 5 million years. There are few earthquakes in the area today. This means the forces

responsible are subsiding.

* The California coast south of the Cape Mendocino is an example of a rifted borderland. This area is associated with

the San Andreas Fault. Off the coast North of Cape Mendocino, a deep trench is located where the ocean floor slides

beneath the continent. To the interior is the Cascade Range. This is an arc of volcanoes.

the higher cascades are younger than 5 million years old indicating that the leading edge of the subducted plate moved

eastward under the North American continent. It is believed that the leading edge is located in Montana and is

responsible for the activity in the Yellowstone area. Mount St .Helens in 1980 was a remainder that this activity is still

going on.

* The primary type of rock in the Cascades is andesite. This type of rock is consistant with a subduction-volcanic arc

borderland and is similar to what occurred to form the Andes of South America. Mount Lassen is composed of andesite

and a related rock known as dacite. Mount Shasta has two cones. The Larger, older cone is compose of dacite. The

smaller is composed of rhyolite. Shasta, the higher peak, shows evidence of multiple glaciations which indicates it's quite

young. An active glacier is still present on the top of Shasta.

Chapter 6 Pacific Northwest Mountains (Klamath Province Area) The Chickadees by Nicole Iversen

Along the coast, plant communities on the terraces are quite similar to those that are associated with the north Coast Ranges.

Klamath Province is associated with three of California's wild and scenic rivers, which include Klamath River, Trinity River, and Smith River.

Climate- Precipitation in the Klamath Province is the highest in the state. Most of the precipitation occurs in the winter (80" along the Redwood Belt)

Cool moist climate encourages vigorous forest growth, but also promotes conditions that discourage large forest fires.

 Geology of the Klamath Province:

Batholithic rock (granitic) was formed by subduction . Metamorphic rocks were added to the western border of North America by accretion. About 65 million years ago the Klamath Mountains stood as an Island. At the end of the Cenozoic, a long period of erosion and tectonic quiescence began.

About 25 million years ago, tectonic activity began again. The San Andreas Transform system began and the southern Coast Ranges began uplift. The Klamath Province is the product of millions of years of erosion under a dense forest cover.

 Biotic Zonation of the Klamath Province:

Riparian Woodland &emdash; At the lower elevations along the coast, the forest understory contains many riparian species : Pacific Madrone, Tanoak, California laurel. At the surrounding forest are Pacific Dogwood, Oregon Ash, Coast Willows, White Alder and Mountain Alder.

Mixed Evergreen Forest: About 1000ft in elevation, this forest is mixed with evergreen species and conifers (Douglas Fir). This forest is divided into four categories based on soil, exposure, and moisture. Ex: White Fir, Sugar Pine, Ponderosa Pine

Moist Yellow Pine Forest: From 2000 to 4500ft this forest is dominated by White Fir and Douglas Fir. An understory tree commonly found is called the Pacific Yew. The Pacific yew is a small tree that grows in a deep shade with a twisted trunk.

Red Fir Forest: Occurs 4500 to 6000ft in elevation, this forest often borders meadows. Associated species include: Lodgepole Pine, Western White Pine, and Mountain Hemlock.

Dry Yellow Pine Forest: Less precipitation occurs on the east side. The dominant species is usually the Jeffery Pine. 

Animals of the Northwest Forests:

Salamanders: At least 15 species include: Painted Salamander, Lungless salamander (Black, Woodland,Clouded), Shasta salamander, Pacific Giant salamander, Northwestern salamander, and Long-toed salamander.

Birds: Seven kinds of birds, which include: Blue Grouse, Oregon Ruffed Grouse, Varied Thrush, Chestnut-backed Chickadee, Vaux's Swift, Black Swift.

Mammals: Among the mammals of the coastal forest include: Northern Flying Squirrel, Western Gray Squirrel, Chickaree, Sonoma Chipmunk, White-footed Vole, Western Red-backed Vole, Mountain Beaver, Porcupine, River Otter, etc.

The Star Thistles Chapter 6 The Pacific Northwest Mountains

"The northwestern corner of California is a mountainous region of diversified geology."  Moist forests and large rivers characterize the topographic upland along the coast.  Elevations range between 5000 and 7000 feet; the highest point is Thompson Peak in the Trinity Alps at 8935 feet in elevation.

These mountain areas are primarily not accessible to the general public.  Most of the roads that have been built are logging roads, of which many are closed off.  The few roads that are available for general public access traverse the area along major rivers.

Abandoned railroads have become a popular mode on entry into these mountainous forest regions.  An example of the conversion of railroad into access to the forests is the 25-mile trail in Lassen National Forest that lays on top of the old Fernley and Lassen Railroad.

Plant communities on the terraces consist of an extensive belt of Coastal Redwoods, particularly along Highway 101.  To see the forested areas in the Klamath Mountains a person has to hike, ride a horse, or use an old logging road.  In the Klamath Mountains above 200 feet the montane forest takes on different characteristics, the vegetation patterns are highly complex and there is large diversity of species.  There are over 20 species of conifers in the Klamath Mountains, that is more that any other part of California.  The Klamath Province is said to most closely resemble the forests that occupied western North America up to a million years ago, the "Klamath vegetation represents living fossil-forests".

Three of California’s wild and scenic rivers are located in the Klamath Province, the Klamath River, the Trinity River and the Smith River.  The Eel River also joins the coast just south of the Klamath Province which means that four of the states wild and scenic rivers are in that region.  Rivers that remain undammed, and follow their natural course are "wild and scenic".  These rivers are also the only rivers that have reasonable runs of salmon and steelhead trout in them.

Because of the deep cut into the upland by the Klamath and Trinity Rivers the Klamath province is made up of several mountain ranges.  The northernmost are the Siskiyou Mountains, drained primarily by the Smith River. The Salmon, Marble, Scott, South Fork, and Trinity Mountains are others.  The southernmost are the Trinity Alps; it has the highest subunit of the region and is primarily drained by the Trinity River.

The Cascade Range, east of the Klamath Province, this is a volcanic province of mostly rolling, forested terrain, elevation approximately 4000 feet.  Sutter Buttes is representative of the southernmost volcanoes, which project 2132 feet from the Sacramento Valley floor.  California’s well-known volcanoes, Shasta and Lassen project "boldly over surrounding terrain."  The southernmost of the province is marked by Lassen Park, which reaches 10457 feet in elevation, surrounded by Lassen Volcanic National Park, covered with open forests, hot springs, and fumaroles.  Mount Shasta to the north reaches 14162 feet.  The northern most of the Cascades is Mount Baker.  The Cascade Range lies tot he west of the Columbia Plateau (a volcanic tableland).  Extending from southern BC to California.  The portion of tableland in California is known as the Modoc Plateau.

Climate

The highest rate of precipitation in the state is in the Klamath Province, along the coast it exceeds 80 inches per year, in the wettest part, the Douglas Fir Forest in the Siskiyous can reach 140 inches per year.  Precipitation occurs primarily in the winter and because temperatures are not particularly cold, the soil never freezes, even where there is snowfall.  Snow may remain on the ground until July, which means that most photosynthesis in these regions occurs during the winter months.  There is more rain in the Klamath Province in the summer than anywhere else in the state, due to Alaskan storms.  The precipitation makes this a region that favors growth and maintenance of relict forests species that occur nowhere else in the state.  Most plants in this region cannot survive without the summer rains.  On the slopes of Mount Shasta and Mount Lassen precipitation is about 60 inches per year.

The cool moist climate not only encourages forest growth and discourages the growth of large forest firs.   After periods of drought or fire suppression large firs can occur.  In 1987, 1.1 million acres burned, the smoke palled in the Klamath River Canyon, creating the effects of a "nuclear winter", and this may have lead to the occurrence of some large firs to take root in the area.

Geology of the Klamath Province

The Klamath Mountains and the Sierra Nevada have the same origin.  The Klamath region batholithic rock (granitic) was formed by a subduction, this material intruded into a series of prebatholithic metamorphic rocks in the long belts west of the plutonic rocks.  Accretion added metamorphic rocks to the western border of North America.  Animal fossils have been found from the same animals at the same locations in both the Klamath Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, they have been dated 130 million years old.  Apparently 130 million years ago the two ranges were separated, the Klamaths slide westward (extension), the Klamaths are 60 miles west of their point of origin.

  The difference between the Klamaths and the Sierra Nevada to the Coast Ranges is the degree of metamorphism caused by intrusion.  About 65 million years ago, the Klamaths stood out as an island, seawater covered what are now the Cascades and the Modoc Plateau.    Material began to erode off the Klamaths and Sierra Nevada and were deposited westward, lateritic soils (oxisols) formed along their western borders.  About 36 million years ago, the San Andreas Transform system began to move northward, and the southern Coast Ranges began their uplift.  Volcanic activity began in northeastern California; black basaltic lava filled the gap between the Klamath Mountains and the rising Sierra Nevada.  The sea was displaced and extension and faulting of the Basin-Range Province began.  Erosion of the granitics were carried westward and filled the Great Central Valley, the ocean was further pushed back.  The difference in the appearance of the Klamaths and the Sierra Nevada is due to the fact that the Klamaths did not experience a secondary uplift, and it is also a product of millions of year of erosion under dense forest.

The discovery of gold in the Klamath River brought prospectors.  The river fast current and the hostile Indians were set backs but nevertheless the miners came.  They diverted the waters and mined the river gravel.  Hydraulic mining created incredible environmental degradation, there are still several miles of gravel piles left over from this period.

Cyanide heap leaching was a mining process that has affected the land in the long term.  Low-grade ore is piled up and them a cyanide solution is sprayed on top, the leachate contains the gold, which is recovered by passing it through carbon-filled columns, the miners assured everyone that this was a safe process. Environmentalists have found that 500 mammals and nearly 7000 birds were reported to be killed by cyanide at mines in Arizona, California, and Nevada between 1980-1989.  Several mining companies would like to setup strip mines in the Gasquet Mountain area or the Siskiyou Mountains, they want to mine the laterite soils and extract cobalt, nickel and chromium.  The largest of these mines would remove 3.3 million tons of dirt per year to yield a mere 50 pounds of metals per ton.  Mining companies are hoping for federal government subsides because they are "strategic materials".  Environmentalists are opposed because of the damage the Smith River would undertake, also the area has been proposed for inclusion in a new national park.  Water and air pollution would possible destroy the area.

Geology of the Cascade Province

The Cascade volcanoes are relatively young; the process that formed the range began several million years ago and was responsible for the uplifting of volcanic peaks in excess of 14000 feet.  In the Tuscan Formation to the west are the older volcanoes, some dated at about 5 million years of age.  Now the intervals between eruptions are much larger than they used to be, also there are relatively few earthquakes, the causes of these activities are obviously subsiding.  The most recent eruptions are million years old.

Cape Mendocino is an example of a rifted borderland, associated with the San Andreas Fault.  Subduction north of Cape Mendocino is of the Andrean type and may still be occurring.  There is an arc of volcanoes to the interior above the region of magma formation in the marine trench; this is the Cascade Range.  To the east, the higher Cascades are thought to be younger than 5 million years old; this indicates the leading edge of the subducting plate is moving eastward under the North American continent.  It is believed that this plate is currently under Montana that is the cause of the volcanic and geothermal activity in Yellowstone.  The eruption of Mount Saint Helens in 1980 was a reminder of the volcanic activity still present.

Andesite is the primary volcanic rock in the Cascades; it is consistent with a subduction-volcanic arc borderland.  Mount Lassen is composed of andesite and dacite (a related rock), Mount Shasta is made up to two cones, the elder of dacite and the younger, smaller cone is composed of rhyolite. Shasta is quite young, this is obvious from the evidence of multiple glaciation, and in fact there is an active glacier still on top of it.

Biotic Zonation of the Klamath Province

Vegetation of the coastal terraces is similar to that on the north Coast Ranges.  Shore Pines grow on sand dunes.  The first terrace is Coastal Prairie.  Grand Fir, Stika Spruce and Western Hemlock grow in moist pockets.  In drier areas the Knob-cone Pine grows, it gets its water from fog drip.

CHAPTER 6: Pacific Northwest Mountains submitted by The Blue Herons (Danielle Gobert, Eugenie Steinman, Stacy Holland and Ann Mason)

The mountainous Pacific Northwest is home to the Cascade Range extending all the way to Washington, plus the Klamath, Siskiyou, Salmon, Marble, South Fork and Trinity Mountains, which are all part of the Klamath Province.

THE KLAMATH PROVINCE consisting of forests and large rivers has uplands with elevations ranging between 5,000 and 7,000 feet. Thompson Peak located in the Trinity Alps is 8,930 feet making it the highest of these mountains. The Klamath Mountains are home to many endemic and relict plants with wide species diversity.

Three rivers that drain out of this area are the Klamath River, the Trinity River and the Smith Rivers. All three of these are known as wild and scenic meaning they are undimmed, allowed to run their natural course. As a result these three rivers are the only California rivers that have a decent run of salmon and steelhead trout. (Just recently, however, the fish of the Klamath River suffered vast losses due to the low release of water into the river in Oregon. The water reached a high temperature allowing a bacteria to grow killing thousands of fish.)

Climate in the Klamath Province is quite damp. This region has the highest precipitation (80+ inches annually) in the state. This moisture from rain and fog year-round maintains the integrity of forest growth and maintenance of relict forest species. Large forest fires are rare in this region.

The geology of the mountains of the Klamath Province is similar in origin and structure to the Sierra Nevada. The foundation consists of batholithic (granitic) rock and metamorphic rock came later. The soils developed from these rocks are jointly called ophiolitic soils. Red clay soils known as lateritic formed during the Cenozoic period can still be found in areas.

This province has been deeply affected by mining with high loss of mammal and bird life plus erosions to the rivers.

THE CASCADE RANGE in California is the southernmost edge of the range. At this edge is Mount Lassen reaching an elevation of 10,457. Another volcanic peak is Mount Shasta further north of Lassen. It reaches 14,162 feet in elevation. The volcanic activity of this range is fairly young beginning just several million years ago. The primary volcanic rock of the Cascades is andesite with dacite also found in Mount Lassen. The composition of Mount Shasta's two cones is dacite in the larger cone and rhyolite in the smaller cone (this cone is known as Shastina). Also Mount Shasta has an active glacier at its top indicating that it is quite young.

Climate

Klamath province receives large amounts of snow and rain, however the soil never freezes.

Geology of the Klamath Province

130 million years ago ranges became separated. The Klamath are now 60 miles West of their origin. Tectonic and volcanic activity is responsible for many mountain ranges, and pushing the sea back farther from the island valleys.
Mining operations are damaging and threatening wildlife in the Klamath and Gasquet Mountain area of the Siskiyu Mountains.

Geology of the Cascade Province

Cascades are relatively young, formed by volcanoes and earthquakes.
Geothermal activity still found in Mt. Lassen area.          

Mt. Lassen is composed of volcanic rocks called andecite and dacite.
Mt Shasta still has an active glacier at its peak.

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