School Facilities
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Online Lesson Contents |
Introduction |
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Part 2: Research
About Learning and School Environments |
A school's physical learning spaces are an educator's first technology. Educators and students spend a majority of their time within a 900 square foot classroom setting. The characteristics of these physical spaces have a strong impact on what learning will take place. A 1995 report from the U.S. Congress Office of Assessment found that two in three schools in the United States are either unsafe or unsuitable for student learning. Over 74% of the K-12 school buildings in the United States were built prior to 1970. A well known futurist states that a teenager's bedroom is technologically more sophisticated than the average K-12 classroom. Chances are good that a K-12 educator in the United States will be involved in at least one construction project during the course of their career. This module is aimed at helping educators understand issues related to physical learning spaces and learning. | |
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Read materials in this online lesson and follow links to other World Wide Web sites. Go to the threaded discussion forum titled, "Online Lesson 3- School Facilities," and respond to the following question: How does form support function in your current school? How would you improve your current learning space? What improvements would you suggest for the larger school environment? |
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Go to Part 2- Learning and School Environments
Our school facilities are a tangible symbol of our
commitment to education...
Part 2: Research
About Learning and School Environments This module contains a rich collection of materials from the World
Wide Web. In going through this material students should see that: 1)
physical spaces are a teacher's first technology; and, 2) classroom
learning environments play a crucial role in supporting or undermining
academic achievement. How how do physical environments support learning? Gary T. Moore responds
to this question in article titled, "Learning and School Environments."
Gary is a professor at the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee and
the Director of the Children's Environments Research and Design Group.
This article is presented through Edutopia- the newsletter of George
Lucas' Educational Foundation. Consider the following questions as you examine this article:
Learning and School Environments Children's Environments Research and Design Group Nationwide, 74 percent of school buildings were built before 1970
and 12 percent are considered inadequate, because they are too old,
too small, have deteriorating mechanical systems and/or seriously
need window replacement.(1) The urgency of the situation is obvious. Our school facilities are
a tangible symbol of our commitment to education, and the message
is not lost on students. Student attitudes about education are a direct
reflection of the quality of their learning environment, according
to a Carnegie Foundation study.(2) Many professional educators and others understand that the physical
characteristics of schools can directly influence learning, while
some don't even think about them. Despite the importance of the issue,
there is relatively little hard research on the topic. What evidence
there is counsels us that the quality of the physical environment
of educational facilities does matter to the process of learning and
to educational achievement. Consider a few examples: Small schools are better. Relative to large schools (1,500 or more
students), smaller schools (around 500 students) offer more opportunities
to participate in extracurricular activities and to exercise leadership
roles.(3) Student satisfaction is higher, participation in student
organizations is greater, crime levels are lower, and student misconduct
is less serious in small schools.(4) Other things held constant, more
classes are taken per student, math and verbal ability is higher,
and overall student achievement is higher in smaller schools. Smaller
schools benefit African-American and urban students in particular.(5) Smaller class sizes and lower class density are better. Another feature
on which there is considerable evidence and which has powerful architectural
implications is class size and density. As class size decreases, voluntary
participation increases, classroom management improves, student attitudes
improve, teacher stress decreases, and teachers are more likely to
try innovative teaching techniques.(6) Conversely, high density conditions
have been found to lead to increased aggression, decreased social
interaction, and greater noninvolvement. In addition, as class size
decreases (e.g., around 15 students with 1 teacher), students outperform
matched groups of students in larger class sizes (over 20 per class)
on all subjects, but especially in reading and mathematics (average
improvements of 15%). These results are the same even when the larger
classes have the additional benefit of a full-time teacher aid. The
findings are consistent for all K-3 grade levels and in rural, urban,
suburban, and inner-city locations.(7) Follow-up studies have shown
that students in smaller class sizes in the early primary grades still
have significant advantages two years later. Performance gains in
different schools ranged from 11-34%, with the greatest gains being
for inner-city schools and minority students.(8) Other architectural features affect learning. There is empirical
evidence about a range of other architectural factors affecting education.
For example: [1] Thermal factors affect task performance,
attention spans, discomfort, and student achievement.(9) [2]
Short-term noise and poor acoustics are linked to classroom distraction
and to lower student and teacher morale.(10) [3] Long-term
noise from nearby streets leads to significant increases in blood
pressure, decreased concentration, increased errors on difficult tasks,
and greater likelihood of giving up on complex tasks.(11) [4]
Spatial density and crowding increase behavioral problems, aggressive
behavior, and distraction on complex tasks, and decrease satisfaction.(l2)
[5] Classroom furniture layouts influence persistence, participation,
and attitudes toward class and other students.(13) [6] Windowless
classrooms lead to more negative student and teacher attitudes.(14)
[7] And private or secluded study spaces reduce visual and
auditory interruptions, increase privacy, contribute to longer attention
spans, lead to more student questions, make learning materials more
accessible, and increase literature use.(15) In summary, there is mounting evidence that many characteristics
of the physical, designed environment of schools can and do affect
attitudes, behaviors, and academic achievement. Some of these effects
result from a direct impact of built form on education, while others
are indirect linkages between architectural characteristics and intervening
psychological, physiological, and behavioral factors like cognitive
fatigue, distraction, motivation, emotional affect, anxiety, or communication.(16)
The bottom line is that a well-designed and well-maintained facility
can, and do, make a difference in our children's lives. ENDNOTES 1.Schoolhouse in the Red: A National Study of School
Facilities and Energy Use (Arlington: American Association of School
Administrators, 1992) 2. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching,
An Imperiled Generation: Saving Urban Schools (Princeton, NJ: Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1988). 3. R.G. Barker and P.V. Gump, Big School, Small School
(Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964). 4. W.J. Fowler, Jr., "What Do We Know About School
Size? What Should We Know?" Paper presented to the American Educational
Research Association Annual Meeting, San Francisco, 1982. 5. J. Garbarino, "Some Thoughts on School Size and
its Effects on Adolescent Development," Journal of Youth and Adolescence,
9 (1980): 19-31. 6. Fowler, op. cit.; H. Pate-Bain, C.M. Achilles,
J. Boyd-Zaharias, and B. McKenna, "Class Size Does Make a Difference,"
Phi Delta Kappan, Nov. 1992: 253-256. See also review in B. Miner,
"Students Learn Best in Small Classes: Tennessee Study Follows 6,500
Children for Four Years," Rethinking Schools January/February 1992:
15. 7. B.A. Nye, J. Boyd-Zaharias, B.D. Fulton, and M.P.
Wallenhorst, "Smaller Classes Really Are Better," American School
Board Journal May 1992: 31-33. 8. C.M. Achilles, "The Effect of School Size on Student
Achievement and the Interaction of Small Classes and School Size on
Student Achievement," Unpublished manuscript, U of North Carolina-Greensboro,
Sept. 1992. 9. C.W. McGuffey, "Facilities," in H.J. Walberg (ed.),
Improving Educational Standards and Productivity (Berkeley: McCutchan,
1982): 237-288. 10. G.W. Evans and S. Cohen, "Environmental Stress,"
in D. Stokols and I. Altman (eds.), Handbook of Environmental Psychology
(New York: Wiley, 1987): 571-610. 11. G.W. Evans, W. Kliewer, and J. Martin, "The Role
of the Physical Environment in the Health and Well-being of Children,"
in H.E. Schroeder (ed.), New Directions in Health Psychology Assessment"
(New York: Hemisphere, 1991): 127-157. 12.Ibid. 13. C.S. Weinstein, The physical environment of the
school: A review of the research, Review of Educational Research,
1979, 49: 577-610. 14. S.B. Ahrentzen, G. Jue, MA. Skorpanich, and G.W.
Evans, "School Environments and Stress," in G.W. Evans (ed.), Environmental
Stress (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982): 224-255. 15. G.T. Moore, "Effects of the Spatial Definition
of Behavior Settings on Children's Behavior," Joumal of Environmental
Psychology, 6 (1986): 205-231. 16. See rev. by G.W. Evans, "Learning and the Physical
Environment," in I. Falk and L. Dierking (eds.), Public Institutions
for Personal Learning: The Long-Term Impacts of Museums (New York:
American Association of Museums, in press). See also G.T. Moore and
J.A. Lackney, "School Design: Crisis, Educational Performance, and
Design Patterns, Children's Environments," 1994, 10(2), 99-112.
Extending research into reality, what schools are there that model
some of the best practices described in Moore's work from your own personal
experience? The School Facilities chapter of Learn and Live, a book
by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, contains a sampling of some
national school facility models. Here are a few school snapshots: Building
on Local Traditions- Coyote Canyon Elementary School in Rancho
Cucamonga, California, reflects the area's rich cultural traditions:
Each classroom is built around an outdoor courtyard containing a Native
American wickiup, an Azetc-style pyramid, a mission bell, or a vineyard
where students can experience history. Back
to the Drawing Board- Sandy Creek High School in Tyrone, Georgia,
seemed a model of modern amenities, but there was no plan in place
for classroom technology. The principal worked with designers to include
a data network infrastructure and arrnaged with Apple to install computers
and make the school a demonstration site. Consider the following questions as you explore this material:
by Gary T. Moore, Ph.D., Professor
University of Wisconsin-MilwaukeeIt is no secret that there is a crisis in America's school
buildings. One urban district, for example was recently found to have
more than 10,000 fire code violations in its schools. A separate inspection
in the same district found fire doors that didn't work, classroom doors
that didn't close, broken toilets, crumbling plaster, potholed playgrounds,
and malfunctioning heating systems.
Butler
Did It- When Benjamin Butler Franklin Middle School of Technology
in Lowell, Massachusetts, replaced a facility built in 1882, innovation
and technology were watchwords.
Go to Part 3- Design Factors for Successful Learning Environments
Part 3: Design
Factors for Successful Learning Environments
As educators plan new physical spaces for learning, a number of different
considerations present themselves. What points would you consider? Anne
Meek, an Assistant Superintendent of Schools in Virginia Beach, VA writes
about some of her considerations in the following article.
Checking School Designs Against the Crystal Ball
by Anne Meek An ability to see into the future would be a useful asset in planning
a neweducational facility. If school planners of the 1960's and 1970's
had been able to foresee the personal computer revolution, they could
have headed off costly electrical retrofitting and allowed countless
more students to enjoy the benefits of information technologies. As
we look into the future, the only sure thing is continuing change
in technology and education. How can we avoid making the same mistake?
The following points are offered not as prophecy, but as a way to
evaluate your plans against current trends. Ensuring Versatility of Spaces Integrating Technology Throughout the Building Providing for Multiple Uses and Users Ensuring a Quality Environment Communicating the Importance of Education Connecting Pride in Place to Commitment to Education Endnotes 2 S.S. Crumpacker, "Using Cultural Information to
Create Schools That Work" in Designing Places for Learning, 31-42.
As we look into the future, the only sure thing
is continuing change in technology and education....
Do square footage allocations ensure versatile use of spaces for instruction?
In the first place, ensuring versatility requires adequate square
footage. State requirements for square footage are minimums, which
are often insufficient for flexible use. Second, learning activities
increasingly take place in three forms: individual small-group, and
large-group-and all three forms may occur within the same classroom
at the same time. Therefore, provisions for all three must be included
within instructional spaces. What's more, now that students use tools
other than papers and pencils, instructional areas should include
workshop space and production studios. Third, storage space has always
been at a premium in schools, and the trend towards saving student
work for portfolios and exhibitions creates a demand for more storage
than ever before. Providing extra storage space in each classroom
can prevent clutter and inconvenience.
Do the plans allow for present and future uses of technology integrated
throughout the facility? Conduits and cable trays for electricity,
phone lines, and other networking cables should be designed to reach
everywhere instructional and administrative efforts may occur. Even
when budget considerations prevent installation of an ideal amount
of wiring, having the conduits available and accessible can considerably
cut the cost of future installations, upgrades, and maintenance. The
wiring scheme should support computers in the main classroom spaces,
not just against the wall. Distance learning and multimedia presentations
are becoming much more common, so every classroom should be able to
serve as a mini-theater, with optimum monitor placement and sound
clarity and amplification. The trend towards smaller, more portable,
and possibly wireless computers means that schools will need secure
storage areas for equipment that is not lent out.
Do the plans allow for multiple uses of school spaces by a variety
of community groups? Facilities planners must pay careful attention
to access, supervisability, and security. Separate outside entrances
should be provided for any parts of the building that might be opened
to public use, including the auditorium, the gym, and the cafeteria.
Basic services-restrooms, concessions, and pay phones-should be readily
available in areas intended for public use. Areas not in use need
to be secured to prevent unnecessary access. And all areas should
be accessible and comfortable for a wide range of people, including
those with disabilities.
Will the plans ensure a stimulating and comfortable environment for
learning? Will the new school, as a public structure, create feelings
of belonging and pride in the hearts and minds of its users? In our
mobile society, with extended families rare, homeless children in
abundance, and gangs as substitute families, planners must strive
to strengthen emotional attachments to school. Schools should be a
home away from home for the people who study and work in them. Economies
of scale, as represented in larger school buildings, are misleading,
because they make it much more difficult to establish a sense of community.
For schools, "smaller is better," according to research by Moore and
Lackey 1 And Crumpacker 2 echoes that a home-like atmosphere fosters
an intimate relationship between students and schooling. All instructional
lighting should be variable and adaptable according to purposes. Spot
lighting is ideal for learning centers, and rheostats can vary levels
of lighting for large-group and small-group activities. For today's
hands-on activities, noise abatement is important. Soft surfaces,
adequate square footage for the separation of groups, fabric baffles
or fiber art, fountains, and sound-proofing will all help keep distracting
sounds to a minimum. School designers must also provide a flexible
HVAC system so the school is comfortably heated and cooled, regardless
of the configuration of moveable walls or of the range of activities
occurring within. Concerns for energy efficiency should not outweigh
the need for adequate ventilation and fresh air, so include windows
that open. Today's teachers, in their roles as coaches, facilitators,
and mentors, need spaces for conferring with students, parents, and
each other, as well as phones and computer workstations for their
planning times. In addition, the presence of growing numbers of volunteers
in schools intensifies the demand for additional work and instructional
spaces.
Will the new school make a statement about the symbolic importance
of education? As a public building, a school should make a statement
about education to the community. The overall facade or appearance
of the facility should reinforce the school's function as a safe haven
for young people, symbolizing the community's heritage and its aspirations
for the future. Planners should invite school partners to donate outdoor
sculptures, exterior and interior murals, and displays of historic
and cultural artifacts for commons areas. Highly visible art work
can celebrate the cultural roots and diversity within the community.
Entryways should invite people in, and clear signage should make the
building and grounds easily navigable. The entire building should
convey the message that this is an important place, that the place
belongs to its users, and that its users belong to the place.
When students take pride in their school buildings, scene of so many
signal memories...first romance, first home run, last years of youth-they
transfer their early experiences into emotional bonds with schooling.
These deep connections between self and school are the groundwork
for economic productivity, the benefits of good citizenship and personal
wellness, and joyous lifelong learning.
1 G.T. Moore and J.A. Lackney, "Design Patterns for
American Schools: Responding to the Reform Movement" in A. Meek (ed.),
Designing Places for Learning (Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development, 1995) 11-22.
Part 4: Web Resources
Ann Taylor thinks that the way a school is designed and used has
a profound impact on the way students learn. This article looks at
the following topics as they related to the construction of schools:
Indoor Learning Environments; Outdoor Learning Environments; School
Is More Than A Place; and , Centers for Life-Long Learning. A resource for school planners and architects, Design Share Planning
News has a range of articles supporting development of effective
learning environments. This paper reviews ergonomics research on computer workstations and
considers the following topics: (1) potential health hazards from
electromagnetic radiation; (2) musculoskeletal disorders; (3) vision
complaints; and (4) psychosocial stresses. Based on this review, guidelines
on how to design an ergonomically correct workstation and learning
environment are shared. Resources
from Concordia Architects